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TECHNOLOGY AND POLLUTION: CHICAGO'S WATER POLICY, 1833--1930 (ILLINOIS).

機(jī)譯：技術(shù)與污染：芝加哥的水政策，1833--1930年（伊利諾伊州）。

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During America's first age of urbanization, from 1830-1860, water pollution first became a significant environmental threat. For a century, sewage was the predominant source of pollution; industrial wastes varied in volume from city to city. Ironically, many attempts to control pollution through centralized sewer systems aggravated the problem.; This dissertation examines how Chicago managed its water pollution problems from its founding in 1833 until 1930, when the U.S. Supreme Court ordered it to provide complete sewage treatment. Water pollution was primarily an urban problem during these years, and Chicago was a leading innovator in managing it. By the 1920's, pollution was a regional problem, which even state governments found it difficult to control.; Chicago was a preeminent city of the industrial age, and its pollution control solutions reflected that culture. The city opened a centralized municipal water supply system in 1854 to curtail reliance on wells, which were contaminated by haphazardly disposed sewage. Two years later, it started the first integrated sewer system in America. It was intended to safely remove the city's sewage, which lay in open cesspools, gutters, and privy vaults. According to the widely accepted filth theory of disease, the decomposing sewage produced toxic vapors which carried cholera, typhoid, and yellow fever. Pollution control projects were the outcome of the "sanitary revolution," which started in England and spread to America during the 1840's. Sanitarians believed that integrated water supply and sewer systems most effectively regulated water quality and prevented sanitary nuisances. Most cities rejected the earth closet, which cleanly containerized sewage in the home, because it was more difficult to regulate the decentralized usage and emptying of these closets.; Unfortunately, Chicago's sewer system created a new pollution problem by concentrating sewage in the Chicago River., which became noxious and was considered, according to the filth theory, a disease source. During flood periods, the river washed pollution into Lake Michigan, the city's water supply. City engineer E. S. Chesbrough tried to reverse the flow of the Chicago River by deepening the Illinois & Michigan Canal, into which the river flowed. Chesbrough also built a tunnel two miles out under Lake Michigan to avoid drawing the contaminated water near the shoreline.; Technology was used to control pollution, as regulation was weak. When Chicago's health department was established in 1867, ordinances were formed to prohibit pollution, especially from industry; but it took ten years of litigation to impose effective control over the stockyards. Since health officials, with their ordinances, and civil engineers, with their technological programs, seldom coordinated their efforts pollution control policies were haphazard.; In the 1890's, bacteriology made environmental control more effective. It transformed conceptions of pollution by providing accurate measures of its components. It also prompted the appearance of water purification engineers, who combined civil engineering and bacteriology. These new experts developed effective water purification and sewage treatment techniques and began to rationalize regulatory policies.; While the bacteriological revolution was taking place, Chicago embarked upon a massive sewage control project predicated upon the obsolete filth theory of disease. In 1889, it started the Sanitary & Ship Canal to flush sewage away from Lake Michigan and the city's water supply once and for all. This did not work. In 1912, the city chlorinated drinking water and began sewage ten years later. Sewage pollution was under apparent control. By World War II, however, industrial pollution, especially toxic chemicals, proliferated and spawned a new environmental crisis which has yet to be resolved.
機(jī)譯：在美國(guó)1830至1860年的城市化初期，水污染首先成為重大的環(huán)境威脅。一個(gè)世紀(jì)以來(lái)，污水一直是主要的污染源。不同城市的工業(yè)廢物量各不相同。具有諷刺意味的是，許多通過(guò)集中式下水道系統(tǒng)控制污染的嘗試使問(wèn)題更加嚴(yán)重。本論文探討了芝加哥從1833年成立到1930年美國(guó)最高法院下令其提供完整污水處理的方式，如何處理其水污染問(wèn)題。這些年來(lái)，水污染主要是城市問(wèn)題，芝加哥是管理水污染的領(lǐng)先創(chuàng)新者。到1920年代，污染已成為一個(gè)地區(qū)性問(wèn)題，甚至州政府也發(fā)現(xiàn)難以控制。芝加哥是工業(yè)時(shí)代的杰出城市，其污染控制解決方案反映了這種文化。為了減少對(duì)井的依賴(lài)，該市于1854年開(kāi)放了集中式市政供水系統(tǒng)，井被隨意處置的污水污染了。兩年后，它啟動(dòng)了美國(guó)第一個(gè)一體化下水道系統(tǒng)。目的是為了安全地清除城市污水，這些污水位于敞開(kāi)的污水池，排水溝和私人金庫(kù)中。根據(jù)被廣泛接受的疾病污穢理論，腐爛的污水產(chǎn)生有毒的蒸氣，攜帶霍亂，傷寒和黃熱病。污染控制項(xiàng)目是“衛(wèi)生革命”的結(jié)果，“衛(wèi)生革命”始于英國(guó)，并在1840年代傳播到美國(guó)。衛(wèi)生人員認(rèn)為，綜合的供水和下水道系統(tǒng)最有效地調(diào)節(jié)了水質(zhì)并防止了衛(wèi)生滋擾。大多數(shù)城市都拒絕使用壁櫥，該壁櫥將家中的污水干凈地容器化，因?yàn)橐?guī)范這些壁櫥的分散使用和排空更加困難。不幸的是，芝加哥的下水道系統(tǒng)通過(guò)將芝加哥河中的污水濃縮而產(chǎn)生了一個(gè)新的污染問(wèn)題。根據(jù)污穢理論，芝加哥河的污水變得有害并被認(rèn)為是一種疾病源。在洪水期間，河水將污染沖入了密歇根湖，該市的供水源。城市工程師E.S. Chesbrough試圖通過(guò)加深伊利諾伊州和密歇根州的運(yùn)河來(lái)扭轉(zhuǎn)芝加哥河的水流。切斯伯勒還在密歇根湖下面建了一條兩英里外的隧道，以避免將污染的水吸入海岸線附近。由于監(jiān)管薄弱，技術(shù)被用來(lái)控制污染。 1867年芝加哥衛(wèi)生部門(mén)成立時(shí)，制定了禁止污染的法令，特別是禁止工業(yè)污染。但是對(duì)牲畜場(chǎng)實(shí)行有效控制需要花費(fèi)十年的訴訟時(shí)間。由于衛(wèi)生官員及其法令和土木工程師及其技術(shù)程序很少協(xié)調(diào)工作，因此污染控制政策是偶然的。在1890年代，細(xì)菌學(xué)使環(huán)境控制更加有效。通過(guò)提供準(zhǔn)確的污染衡量指標(biāo)，它改變了污染的概念。它還促使出現(xiàn)了將土木工程學(xué)和細(xì)菌學(xué)相結(jié)合的凈水工程師。這些新專(zhuān)家開(kāi)發(fā)了有效的水凈化和污水處理技術(shù)，并開(kāi)始合理化監(jiān)管政策。細(xì)菌革命發(fā)生時(shí)，芝加哥著手進(jìn)行一項(xiàng)大規(guī)模的污水處理項(xiàng)目，該項(xiàng)目基于過(guò)時(shí)的污穢疾病理論。 1889年，它啟動(dòng)了“衛(wèi)生與船舶運(yùn)河”，一勞永逸地沖走了密歇根湖和城市供水的污水。這沒(méi)有用。 1912年，該市對(duì)飲用水進(jìn)行了氯化處理，十年后開(kāi)始排污。污水污染得到明顯控制。然而，到第二次世界大戰(zhàn)，工業(yè)污染，特別是有毒化學(xué)物質(zhì)激增并催生了新的環(huán)境危機(jī)，尚未解決。

著錄項(xiàng)

  • 作者

    O'CONNELL, JAMES CHARLES.;

  • 作者單位

    The University of Chicago.;

  • 授予單位 The University of Chicago.;
  • 學(xué)科 History United States.; Environmental Sciences.
  • 學(xué)位 Ph.D.
  • 年度 1980
  • 頁(yè)碼
  • 總頁(yè)數(shù)
  • 原文格式 PDF
  • 正文語(yǔ)種 eng
  • 中圖分類(lèi) 美洲史;環(huán)境科學(xué)基礎(chǔ)理論;
  • 關(guān)鍵詞

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